MacKeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult learning. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
According to the author, “more and more adults are engaged in some form of learning that involves physical skills” (MacKeracher, 2004, p. 139). She (2004) quotes Marchese as saying that “evolutionary psychologists have identified an approach to learning that has proved successful over the ages, and that we seem to have forgotten. That approach is apprenticeship” (p. 140). Situated-learning is one idea that has come from the apprenticeship model.
Instructional methods used in situated-learning include:
telling stories, reflecting, using authentic practices and social interaction, using collaborative activities, coaching multiple practice sessions, having learners talk about what they are doing to better understand their thinking processes, and using technology (MacKeracher, 2004, p. 140).
She goes on to say that these methods are good for picking up skills, helping learners become independent, learning skills in simulated or real-life situations, and making sure that students understand the meaning of the knowledge and skills they have learned.All skill learning does not involve physical movement; however, physical learning involves the interaction of sensory information, physical movement, and body image. Of these three, body image is a cognitive element and is often distorted by the gender, societal, racial, and cultural aspects of the environment.
Adults from every walk of life engage in physical learning and their reasons are as varied as the people themselves. They include:
co-ordinating the body’s functions . . . , orienting the body in physical space . . . , using tools and resources effectively . . . , improving muscular strength and flexibility . . . , improving body image and general physical conditioning . . . , learning or improving skills in home-related activities . . . , learning or improving skills in work-related activities . . . , learning or improving skills in sports and recreation activities . . . , learning and improving skills in arts and crafts . . . , maintaining and improving eye-hand coordination and fine muscle control . . . and, adapting existing skills in response to age-related and other changes (MacKeracher, 2004, 142-3).
It has been shown in several studies that participating in physical learning activities has benefits as the students also learn more efficiently when participating in cognitive learning activities.
Physical learning has five major characteristics: fluency of movement; speed of performance; smoothly automated physical actions; ability to do several different physical actions at the same time; and knowledge about when to use specific actions. The author goes on to explain each of these characteristics and gives examples. She says, that for educators to facilitate the physical learning process, they should use a five-step process called cognitive apprenticeship, which involves modeling, coaching or scaffolding, fading, solo performance, and reflection and exploration (MacKeracher, 2004, 147-8).
I always enjoyed teaching and used many of the steps of cognitive apprenticeship while teaching the shop portion of Agricultural Mechanics I and the various aspects of my Horticulture classes. By being able to show the students how to weld or use to transplant seedlings correctly, they were better able to complete the tasks safely and efficiently. It was more difficult to use the process in English, but we manage to incorporate it into our research unit in which the students wrote short research papers to prepare them for the Senior Project paper required for graduation.
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